BIO 304 . Human Anatomy & Physiology . Week 8

Week 8 Workbook — Renal & Reproductive

Days 29 through 32 . Print one packet, work the whole week.

Print this whole packet at the start of the week and use it as you work through the videos and interactive notes for the days listed below. Each day starts on a fresh page so it’s easy to keep them organized.

Day 29 · Kidney Anatomy & Glomerular Filtration
Day 30 · Tubular Function & Urine Concentration
Day 31 · Fluid, Electrolyte & Acid-Base Balance
Day 31 · Male Reproductive System
Day 32 · Female Reproductive System
Day 32 · Pregnancy A&P Basics

Day 29

Kidney Anatomy & Glomerular Filtration

BIO 304 . WEEK 8 . MONDAY . LAB WORKBOOK

Kidney Anatomy and Glomerular Filtration

Gross kidney structure, the nephron, and how filtration starts.

Print this page. You will draw your own diagrams from the directions below, then hand-label the structures listed. Drawing by hand is the integrity mechanism for this course.

Part 1 of 2

Anatomy Lab

1A. What you will draw

The kidney is built of about a million tiny functional units called nephrons. Each nephron starts by filtering blood at the glomerulus. Today you'll draw the kidney from outside in and one nephron in detail.

Box A. Kidney in coronal section + nephron schematic

Directions

Left half: draw a kidney cut in half (coronal section, kidney bean shape).
Label the outer cortex (granular, lighter), then the inner medulla containing several renal pyramids (cone-shaped). Tip of each pyramid (renal papilla) points into a minor calyx. Minor calyces converge into major calyces, which empty into the renal pelvis, which empties into the ureter. Label every structure.
Add the renal artery (entering) and renal vein (leaving) at the hilum.
Right half: draw a single nephron schematic. Start with the glomerulus inside Bowman's capsule (in the cortex). Continue through the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT, in cortex), down into the loop of Henle (which dips into the medulla, with a thin descending limb and a thick ascending limb), then back up to the distal convoluted tubule (DCT, in cortex), and finally into the collecting duct (which descends through the medulla and empties into the renal papilla).
Label every nephron segment.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

Box B. Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule close-up

Directions

Draw the glomerulus as a tuft of capillaries enclosed inside Bowman's capsule (a cup-like structure).
Show the afferent arteriole (larger diameter) entering the glomerulus, and the efferent arteriole (smaller diameter) leaving the glomerulus. Label both.
Note: the difference in arteriole diameters creates high pressure inside the glomerular capillaries, which is what drives filtration.
Draw the filtration barrier: capillary endothelial cells (with pores), the glomerular basement membrane (negatively charged, blocks proteins), and the podocyte foot processes (forming filtration slits). Label all three.
Show filtered fluid (filtrate) passing into Bowman's space and then into the PCT.
Note: filtrate contains water, ions, glucose, amino acids, urea (small things). It excludes RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and large proteins (these stay in the blood).

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

1C. Structures to label (22)

After you finish each drawing, label every structure below directly on your sketch.

Renal cortex
Renal medulla
Renal pyramid
Renal papilla
Minor calyx
Major calyx
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Renal artery
Renal vein
Hilum
Glomerulus
Bowman's capsule
Bowman's space
Afferent arteriole
Efferent arteriole
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
Loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
Collecting duct
Podocyte
Glomerular basement membrane

Part 2 of 2

Physiology Lab

2A. Filtration rules: in or out of the filtrate?

For each substance below, decide whether it is FILTERED (passes into Bowman's space at the glomerulus) or NOT FILTERED. Justify in one phrase based on size or charge.

1. Water (H2O).

2. Sodium ions (Na+).

3. Glucose.

4. Urea.

5. Red blood cells.

6. Albumin (a small plasma protein, ~67 kDa, negatively charged).

7. Creatinine (a small molecule, freely filtered, used clinically to estimate GFR).

2B. Synthesis questions

Answer each in 2 to 4 sentences. Use the language from this week's lecture and your drawings as evidence.

1. Calculate cardiac output to kidney perfusion: at rest, the kidneys receive about 20 to 25 percent of cardiac output. If CO is 5 L/min, what is renal blood flow? Why is the kidney so heavily perfused?

2. Predict what happens to glomerular filtration rate (GFR) if (a) the afferent arteriole constricts, (b) the efferent arteriole constricts. Explain using the pressure-gradient concept.

3. A patient with severe hypertension develops kidney damage over years. Predict how chronic high pressure damages the delicate glomerular structures, and explain why proteinuria (protein in the urine) is a hallmark of this damage.

3. What to submit

Complete both the Anatomy Lab (your own drawings, hand-labeled, plus the structures list) and the Physiology Lab (activity and synthesis questions). Photograph or scan every page and upload to Canvas before the deadline listed on the schedule. Hand-drawn, hand-labeled work is the integrity mechanism for this course. Typed or AI-generated diagrams are not accepted.

Day 30

Tubular Function & Urine Concentration

BIO 304 . WEEK 8 . TUESDAY . LAB WORKBOOK

Tubular Function and Urine Concentration

Reabsorption, secretion, and how the kidney makes concentrated urine.

Print this page. You will draw your own diagrams from the directions below, then hand-label the structures listed. Drawing by hand is the integrity mechanism for this course.

Part 1 of 2

Anatomy Lab

1A. What you will draw

About 180 L of filtrate is produced every day, but only 1 to 2 L of urine leaves the body. The nephron tubules reclaim everything useful and concentrate the rest. Today you'll annotate each tubule segment and then draw the medullary osmotic gradient.

Box A. Nephron with segment functions

Directions

Draw a nephron in the same orientation as Day 29: glomerulus, PCT (in cortex), loop of Henle (descending and ascending limbs going into medulla), DCT (back in cortex), collecting duct (going down through medulla to papilla).
Beside each segment, write what is REABSORBED (into blood) and what is SECRETED (into filtrate).
PCT: ~65 percent of water and Na+, all glucose and amino acids (via co-transport), bicarbonate (HCO3-). Reclaims most filtered nutrients.
Loop of Henle, descending limb: water reabsorbed (permeable to water, not solute). Loop of Henle, ascending thick limb: Na+ and Cl- reabsorbed (not permeable to water). This creates the medullary gradient.
DCT: fine-tuning. Na+ reabsorbed (aldosterone-regulated), Ca2+ reabsorbed (PTH-regulated), K+ secreted.
Collecting duct: water reabsorption controlled by ADH (vasopressin). Urea reabsorbed in deep medulla.
Label each segment and its key activity.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

Box B. Medullary osmotic gradient

Directions

Draw the kidney section showing cortex at top and deep medulla at bottom.
Mark interstitial osmolarity at different depths: 300 mOsm/L at cortex (same as plasma), rising to about 1200 mOsm/L deep in the medulla.
Show how the loop of Henle creates this gradient (countercurrent multiplier).
Now show two scenarios for the collecting duct passing through this gradient:
ADH ABSENT (diabetes insipidus or overhydration): collecting duct is impermeable to water; urine stays dilute (about 50 to 100 mOsm/L); large urine volume.
ADH PRESENT (dehydration or normal): aquaporins inserted in collecting duct; water leaves to enter the concentrated medullary interstitium; urine becomes concentrated (up to 1200 mOsm/L); small urine volume.
Note: the medullary gradient is what makes concentrated urine POSSIBLE; ADH controls whether the body USES it.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

1C. Structures to label (14)

After you finish each drawing, label every structure below directly on your sketch.

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
Loop of Henle
Descending limb
Ascending thick limb
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
Collecting duct
Reabsorption
Secretion
Aldosterone
ADH (vasopressin)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Aquaporin (water channel)
Medullary osmotic gradient
Countercurrent multiplier

Part 2 of 2

Physiology Lab

2A. Trace one molecule of filtered glucose

A glucose molecule has just entered Bowman's space at the glomerulus. Trace what happens to it segment by segment in a healthy person. Then in someone with diabetes mellitus and blood glucose of 350 mg/dL.

2B. Synthesis questions

Answer each in 2 to 4 sentences. Use the language from this week's lecture and your drawings as evidence.

1. A patient with diabetes mellitus has blood glucose of 350 mg/dL (well above the renal threshold of ~200). Predict the urine composition and explain why these patients experience polyuria (excessive urine) and polydipsia (excessive thirst).

2. A patient takes a loop diuretic (e.g., furosemide), which blocks Na+/K+/2Cl- reabsorption in the thick ascending limb. Predict the immediate effects on (a) the medullary gradient, (b) urine volume, (c) serum potassium, and (d) blood pressure. Why is this drug used to treat heart failure?

3. SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate ADH) causes ADH release even when blood is dilute. Predict the urine osmolarity, blood sodium, and the patient's symptoms. Why is excess water retention more dangerous than excess water loss in terms of brain function?

3. What to submit

Day 31

Fluid, Electrolyte & Acid-Base Balance

BIO 304 . WEEK 8 . THURSDAY . LAB WORKBOOK

Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance

Body water compartments, key electrolytes, and how the body keeps pH at 7.4.

Print this page. You will draw your own diagrams from the directions below, then hand-label the structures listed. Drawing by hand is the integrity mechanism for this course.

Part 1 of 2

Anatomy Lab

1A. What you will draw

Body water is split between intracellular and extracellular compartments, each with its own electrolyte signature. Blood pH is maintained near 7.4 by buffers, the lungs, and the kidneys. Today you'll draw the compartments, then the compensatory pathways.

Box A. Body fluid compartments

Directions

Draw a person silhouette. Show total body water as about 60 percent of body weight.
Divide total body water into two compartments:
Intracellular fluid (ICF): about 40 percent of body weight, or about 2/3 of total body water. Inside the body's cells. Dominant ions: K+ (high), phosphate (high), proteins (high). Label.
Extracellular fluid (ECF): about 20 percent of body weight, or about 1/3 of total body water. Subdivide ECF into: plasma (about 1/4 of ECF, inside blood vessels) and interstitial fluid (about 3/4 of ECF, between cells in tissues). Dominant ions in ECF: Na+ (high), Cl- (high), HCO3-.
Mark the cell membrane separating ICF from ECF, and the capillary endothelium separating plasma from interstitial fluid.
Note: the Na+/K+ ATPase is what maintains the K+-rich inside and Na+-rich outside.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

Box B. Acid-base regulation: lungs and kidneys

Directions

Write the central equation at the top: CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3-. Note: carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the first step.
Show the LUNGS adjusting CO2: increased ventilation blows off more CO2 (shifts the equation LEFT, removing H+, raising pH). Decreased ventilation retains CO2 (shifts RIGHT, raising H+, lowering pH). Label respiratory compensation.
Show the KIDNEYS adjusting HCO3- and H+: the kidney can reabsorb HCO3- to raise pH, or excrete H+ into urine to raise pH. Conversely, it can excrete HCO3- and retain H+ to lower pH. Label renal compensation.
Note the time courses: respiratory compensation is FAST (minutes). Renal compensation is SLOW (days).

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

1C. Structures to label (12)

After you finish each drawing, label every structure below directly on your sketch.

Total body water (~60% body weight)
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Plasma
Interstitial fluid
Na+ (high ECF)
K+ (high ICF)
HCO3- (bicarbonate)
H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
Carbonic anhydrase
Respiratory compensation
Renal compensation

Part 2 of 2

Physiology Lab

2A. Acid-base disorders

For each clinical scenario, identify (a) the primary acid-base disorder (respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, or metabolic alkalosis), and (b) the expected compensation by the OTHER system.

1. A patient with severe COPD retains CO2 chronically.

2. An anxious patient hyperventilates after a panic attack.

3. A diabetic patient in DKA produces ketoacids faster than the kidneys can clear them.

4. A patient vomits repeatedly for 24 hours, losing large amounts of HCl from the stomach.

5. A patient with a heroin overdose has slow, shallow breathing (hypoventilation).

6. A patient at high altitude (low atmospheric O2) hyperventilates to maximize oxygen uptake.

2B. Synthesis questions

Answer each in 2 to 4 sentences. Use the language from this week's lecture and your drawings as evidence.

1. An ABG (arterial blood gas) shows pH 7.25, PCO2 60 mmHg, HCO3- 28 mEq/L. Identify the disorder and the expected compensation. What clinical condition might produce this picture?

2. A patient is severely dehydrated from diarrhea. Predict the effects on (a) total body water compartments, (b) serum Na+, (c) blood pressure, (d) the kidney's response (ADH, aldosterone). What IV fluid would you give and why?

3. Hyperkalemia (high serum K+) is life-threatening because it depolarizes excitable cells. Explain mechanistically why elevated extracellular K+ depolarizes cells, and predict the consequence for cardiac action potentials.

3. What to submit

Day 31

Male Reproductive System

BIO 304 . WEEK 8 . THURSDAY . LAB WORKBOOK

Male Reproductive System

Testes, accessory glands, spermatogenesis, and hormonal control.

Print this page. You will draw your own diagrams from the directions below, then hand-label the structures listed. Drawing by hand is the integrity mechanism for this course.

Part 1 of 2

Anatomy Lab

1A. What you will draw

The male reproductive system produces sperm in the testes, matures and stores them in the epididymis, and delivers them through a series of ducts with contributions from three accessory glands. Today you'll draw both the gross anatomy and a seminiferous tubule showing spermatogenesis.

Box A. Male reproductive system (sagittal section)

Directions

Draw a side view of the male pelvis.
Show the testis hanging in the scrotum (outside the body cavity to keep cooler).
Inside the testis, show coiled seminiferous tubules.
Outside the testis but attached to it, draw the epididymis (a tightly coiled tube on the posterior surface).
From the epididymis, draw the vas deferens (ductus deferens) ascending up out of the scrotum, looping behind the bladder.
Show three accessory glands: seminal vesicles (paired, posterior to bladder), prostate gland (encircling the urethra just below the bladder), bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands (small, below the prostate).
Show the ducts of the seminal vesicle joining the vas deferens to form the ejaculatory duct, which passes through the prostate and joins the urethra.
Finally, show the urethra exiting through the penis. Label.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

Box B. Seminiferous tubule with spermatogenesis

Directions

Draw a cross-section of one seminiferous tubule (round shape with a lumen).
Show developing sperm cells in a progression from the OUTSIDE (basement membrane) to the INSIDE (lumen).
Outermost: spermatogonia (diploid stem cells, 2n). Label.
Inward: primary spermatocytes (2n, undergoing meiosis I). Label.
Further inward: secondary spermatocytes (haploid, n, after meiosis I). Label.
Closer to lumen: spermatids (n, after meiosis II). Label.
At the lumen edge: spermatozoa (mature sperm with head, midpiece, tail). Label.
Add Sertoli cells (sustentacular cells) reaching from the basement membrane to the lumen, supporting and nurturing developing sperm. Label.
Between tubules, add Leydig cells (interstitial cells) which produce testosterone. Label.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

1C. Structures to label (18)

After you finish each drawing, label every structure below directly on your sketch.

Testis
Seminiferous tubule
Epididymis
Vas deferens (ductus deferens)
Ejaculatory duct
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
Urethra
Penis
Scrotum
Spermatogonium
Primary spermatocyte
Secondary spermatocyte
Spermatid
Spermatozoon
Sertoli cell
Leydig cell

Part 2 of 2

Physiology Lab

2A. Trace a sperm cell from production to ejaculation

List the path a single sperm cell takes from the moment it is formed in the seminiferous tubule to the moment it leaves the body in semen. Aim for 7 to 9 steps.

2B. Synthesis questions

Answer each in 2 to 4 sentences. Use the language from this week's lecture and your drawings as evidence.

1. A vasectomy involves cutting and tying the vas deferens. Predict (a) whether sperm production continues, (b) whether ejaculation still occurs, (c) what is missing from the ejaculate. Why does the procedure not affect testosterone levels?

2. Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis: GnRH releases LH and FSH, which act on the testis. LH stimulates Leydig cells (testosterone), FSH stimulates Sertoli cells (sperm maturation). Predict the effects of (a) anabolic steroid abuse, which raises external testosterone, on natural testosterone production and sperm count.

3. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is enlargement of the prostate, common in older men. Given the prostate's anatomical position (encircling the urethra), predict the patient's urinary symptoms and explain the mechanism.

3. What to submit

Day 32

Female Reproductive System

BIO 304 . WEEK 8 . FRIDAY . LAB WORKBOOK

Female Reproductive System

Ovaries, uterus, the ovarian cycle, and hormonal control.

Print this page. You will draw your own diagrams from the directions below, then hand-label the structures listed. Drawing by hand is the integrity mechanism for this course.

Part 1 of 2

Anatomy Lab

1A. What you will draw

The female reproductive system is built around a monthly cycle that prepares both an egg and a uterus for possible fertilization and pregnancy. Today you'll draw the system in sagittal section, then the hormonal cycle that drives it.

Box A. Female reproductive system (sagittal section)

Directions

Draw a side view of the female pelvis.
Center the uterus (pear-shaped, anteverted, lying over the bladder).
On each side of the uterus, draw a fallopian tube (uterine tube, oviduct) extending laterally and curving toward an ovary. The end of each fallopian tube fans out into fimbriae over the ovary.
Below the uterus, draw the cervix (lower narrow portion of the uterus) and the vagina extending down to the vaginal opening.
Label uterus, fallopian tube, fimbriae, ovary, cervix, vagina.
Inside the uterus wall, label endometrium (inner lining, sheds during menstruation) and myometrium (thick smooth muscle layer).

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

Box B. Ovarian and menstrual cycle

Directions

Draw a horizontal timeline across 28 days. Mark Day 1 (start of menstruation) at the left and Day 28 at the right. Mark Day 14 as ovulation.
Above the timeline, draw the ovarian cycle: Follicular phase (Days 1-13), Ovulation (Day 14), Lu#0B1530 phase (Days 15-28). Show: developing follicles (small to large) during the follicular phase, ovulation as a small explosion at Day 14, corpus luteum (yellow body) during the lu#0B1530 phase.
Below the timeline, draw the uterine cycle: Menstrual phase (Days 1-5, endometrium sheds), Proliferative phase (Days 6-14, endometrium thickens), Secretory phase (Days 15-28, endometrium becomes vascular and gland-rich, ready for implantation).
Above everything, sketch four hormone curves: FSH (peaks early follicular), LH (sharp surge at Day 14 triggering ovulation), Estrogen (rises late follicular, secondary peak in lu#0B1530 phase), Progesterone (low during follicular, rises in lu#0B1530 phase after ovulation).
Note: if no pregnancy, the corpus luteum degenerates around Day 25-28, progesterone and estrogen drop, the endometrium sheds, and a new cycle begins.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

1C. Structures to label (19)

After you finish each drawing, label every structure below directly on your sketch.

Ovary
Fallopian tube
Fimbriae
Uterus
Endometrium
Myometrium
Cervix
Vagina
Follicular phase
Ovulation
Lu#0B1530 phase
Corpus luteum
Menstrual phase
Proliferative phase
Secretory phase
FSH
LH
Estrogen
Progesterone

Part 2 of 2

Physiology Lab

2A. Hormone-organ-action map

Fill in the table to map each hormone to its source, target, and main action during the cycle.

Hormone	Source	Target	Main action
FSH
LH
Estrogen (early/follicular phase)
LH (mid-cycle surge)
Progesterone (lu#0B1530 phase)
Estrogen + progesterone (high level feedback)

Hormonal contraceptives (e.g., combined estrogen + progestin pills) prevent ovulation. Explain mechanistically: which hormones do they mimic, and how does that prevent the LH surge?

Menopause occurs when the ovaries stop responding to FSH and LH. Predict the changes in estrogen and progesterone, the FSH/LH levels (they go UP, due to loss of negative feedback), and explain why hot flashes and bone loss are common consequences.

2B. Synthesis questions

Answer each in 2 to 4 sentences. Use the language from this week's lecture and your drawings as evidence.

1. A patient is trying to conceive but has irregular ovulation. Predict the effect on her hormonal cycle and uterine lining, and explain why ovulation predictor kits (which detect LH) help with timing.

2. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) involves elevated androgens, irregular ovulation, and insulin resistance. Predict the patient's menstrual pattern and fertility, and explain why follicles fail to mature properly.

3. Ectopic pregnancy: a fertilized egg implants in the fallopian tube rather than the uterus. Predict the clinical course (early pregnancy symptoms followed by acute abdominal pain and bleeding) and explain mechanistically why the fallopian tube cannot support a growing embryo.

3. What to submit

Day 32

Pregnancy A&P Basics

BIO 304 . WEEK 8 . FRIDAY . LAB WORKBOOK

Pregnancy A&P (Basics)

Fertilization, implantation, the placenta, and the major changes of pregnancy.

Print this page. You will draw your own diagrams from the directions below, then hand-label the structures listed. Drawing by hand is the integrity mechanism for this course.

Part 1 of 2

Anatomy Lab

1A. What you will draw

Pregnancy is an extraordinary integration of multiple physiological systems. Today you'll draw the early events (fertilization, cleavage, implantation), then the mature placenta as the maternal-fetal interface.

Box A. Fertilization to implantation

Directions

Draw a horizontal arrow with five labeled stages, left to right.
Stage 1: Fertilization. A sperm meets the egg in the upper fallopian tube. Draw both with the sperm head entering the egg cytoplasm. Result: zygote (2n).
Stage 2: Cleavage. Repeated cell divisions, no growth. Show a 2-cell, then 4-cell, then 8-cell embryo.
Stage 3: Morula. A solid ball of about 16 cells.
Stage 4: Blastocyst. A hollow ball with an inner cell mass (becomes embryo) and outer trophoblast (becomes placenta). Show a fluid-filled cavity inside.
Stage 5: Implantation. The blastocyst burrows into the endometrium of the uterus around Day 6 to 7 after fertilization. The trophoblast cells invade and begin forming the placenta.
Label every stage.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

Box B. Mature placenta

Directions

Draw a cross-section of a mature placenta and the surrounding uterine wall.
Show maternal blood spaces (lacunae) in the placenta filled with maternal blood. Show the maternal arteries (spiral arteries) supplying these lacunae.
Show fetal villi projecting into the maternal blood spaces. The villi contain fetal capillaries.
Critical: maternal and fetal blood DO NOT MIX. They are separated by the placental barrier (trophoblast layer plus fetal capillary endothelium). Gases, nutrients, antibodies, drugs, and wastes diffuse across.
Show the umbilical cord leaving the placenta, containing two umbilical arteries (carrying deoxygenated blood FROM fetus TO placenta) and one umbilical vein (carrying oxygenated blood FROM placenta TO fetus). Label.
Note: this is the only place in the body where arteries carry deoxygenated blood and a vein carries oxygenated blood.

Draw here. Sketch by hand.

1C. Structures to label (20)

After you finish each drawing, label every structure below directly on your sketch.

Zygote
Cleavage
Morula
Blastocyst
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Implantation
Endometrium
Placenta
Maternal blood (lacuna)
Spiral artery
Fetal villus
Fetal capillary
Placental barrier
Umbilical cord
Umbilical artery (2)
Umbilical vein (1)
hCG
Estrogen (placental)
Progesterone (placental)

Part 2 of 2

Physiology Lab

2A. Hormonal changes through pregnancy

Sketch a graph of major pregnancy hormones over 40 weeks (gestational age) on the lines below. Then answer the interpretation questions.

1. hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin): peaks at about 8 to 10 weeks, then declines. Source? Function?

2. Progesterone: rises throughout pregnancy. Source shifts from corpus luteum to placenta around week 10. Function?

3. Estrogen: rises steadily throughout pregnancy, made by the placenta. Function in the third trimester?

4. Relaxin: produced by ovary and placenta; rises late in pregnancy. Function at parturition?

5. Oxytocin: surges at parturition. Source? Mechanism (positive feedback during labor)?

6. Prolactin: rises through pregnancy and after delivery. Function?

2B. Synthesis questions

Answer each in 2 to 4 sentences. Use the language from this week's lecture and your drawings as evidence.

1. Home pregnancy tests detect hCG in the urine. Explain why hCG is a reliable early marker, why it peaks at 8 to 10 weeks, and why levels in ectopic pregnancy or miscarriage are often lower than expected for gestational age.

2. Gestational diabetes develops in some women because placental hormones (especially human placental lactogen) increase insulin resistance. Predict the maternal blood glucose pattern, the consequences for the fetus (macrosomia), and why blood sugar typically normalizes after delivery.

3. Parturition (labor) involves a positive feedback loop with oxytocin. Identify the stimulus, the receptor, the response, and the amplifying step. Why is positive feedback (rather than negative feedback) the right architecture for this physiological event?